Dungeons and Dragons 5e doesn't typically have things like that, so it would have to be custom abilities provided by items or Illithid abilities.
HOWEVER, the sorcerer class has a thing called metamagic that allows you to attach effects to spells like increasing the power, and warlock already gets invocations that increase Eldritch Blast to a stronger spell.
Additionally, ritual casting is a mechanic where if you spend 10minutes or the ritual time casting a spell, you can essentially cast it without a spell slot (I think), which BG3 lacks, it would be out of combat and if implement would likely have a longer casting time so risk of discovery while casting.
Otherwise, I can not think of anything that requires multiple rounds, there is concentration spells so you can keep doing an effect or replicating an effect, but nothing that is 2 round casting that comes to mind.